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How to do presentations1. Introduction 1. INTRODUCTIONWe frequently ask students to give some form of presentation – to report back on a research project, to give a seminar paper, or to work individually or in groups to present information and ideas to others. The skills involved are valuable for just about any job you could mention, not least for interviews when you are trying to get a job, and are valuable in pretty much any real-life situation when you need to give information, persuade, negotiate, explain, criticize, discuss or judge. This paper is intended to help you develop and hone these skills, overcome the nervousness everyone feels when called on to talk to a group of people (even lecturers feel this way), and become an effective and convincing public speaker. A first general point: always address the people you are talking to. Make eye contact with individuals, and not just with one person in the middle, or the tutor. Talk to each person, and to all of them and remember: you learn as much from other students as you do from teachers. The following factors should always be uppermost in your mind when preparing a presentation: Aims and Objectives - what point or points are you trying to communicate? - how are your audience going to recognise your central points? Materials - collect the texts, slides, video clips, overhead projection slides, photocopies you need - get these resources in order before you start (eg get your slides in order in the carousel, and cue your video to the place you want to begin from) - make sure each resource is relevant to the argument you want to present - and be certain that they come in the right order during the presentation Delivery - keep to the time limit set by the tutor (do a run through to see how long it takes) - use visual or audio resources to spice the argument - engage the audience (for example by making eye contact, asking questions, referring to examples from everyday life) - project! – use your voice, movement, gestures to keep their attention - be honest, answer questions if you can, and if you can’t, say so. Everyone is on your side. - relax, be yourself. You might even enjoy it. 2. WHAT IS YOUR TALK ABOUT?Do you want to inform, train, persuade, criticise, entertain, evaluate? Do you want to do a bit of each? Will these different aims get in the way of each other? This might happen if you mix entertainment with criticism, for example: your audience may get confused. If you want to inform or explain, it helps to use familiar examples, to emphasise key points, to make analogies (“it’s a bit like…”), summarise each step of the argument, and make a few judiciously chosen references to authors on the subject you are dealing with. If you want to persuade, use evidence and examples, and show your enthusiasm. Keep a tight focus on the subject (eg Star Trek), the theme (eg gender roles aboard the Enterprise) and your point of view or perspective (despite its liberalism, Star Trek is still sexist trash). Think yourself into the position of the audience. What will they expect of the topic? How many of them will there be? How much knowledge are they likely to have about the subject? Are they likely to agree or disagree with your take on it? How formal do you want to be? Sometimes being very formal is a good way of coping with nerves. But if you are too formal with a group of fellow students, they may lose the thread of your argument. For academic presentations, some formality in your choice of language is important, but you may also want to refer to shared experiences, or to tell a joke to loosen up the atmosphere. Tell them the main point of the talk at the beginning. Summarise each argument as you present it. Remind them at the end of the talk what your major point has been. And ask them if what you have said is clear. 3. PREPARATIONOnce you know what you want to say, and you have worked out how much time you have to say it, and you have a clear idea of who you are saying it to, you need to gather your material and structure it. Give yourself plenty of time for preparation. That way, if a book you need is already on loan, or you have trouble finding that vital video clip, you won’t be driven to panic. The better you know your topic, the less anxious you will be talking about it, even if you can’t use everything you know in the presentation. If you are doing a group presentation, be sure you have agreed clearly who is doing what (“What slides? I thought you were getting them!”). Putting the agreed tasks in writing helps to avoid confusion. Even if you are doing a presentation on your own, it is a good idea to write a list of the things you are going to need, where you are going to get them from, and when you are going to collect them. Some people like to think of their main points first, and then research them. Some people like to research their materials and see what ideas emerge from them. Most people do a bit of both. Research means having some sort of idea to begin with, but being ready to change it if you find new evidence. Keep your options open. 4. SELECTING YOUR MATERIALAudiences tend to be able to take in less than you think. So you will need to be selective in your choice of material. As yourself continually: is this relevant? Identify the key points you want to get over. Find the one crystal clear example that demonstrates each point. Stick to the point(s). Rehearse with a friend. They will be able to tell you what is clear and what isn’t, and you can be sure of the amount of time you need for each point. You will have to leave out things that you have discovered. Don’t be sad: they won’t go away because you haven’t been able to use them on this occasion. And if anyone asks you a question, you will be ready. 5. PUTTING YOUR MATERIAL IN ORDERWrite down your main points on cards. Sometimes there will be a logical order to an argument (“If it is true that all the women in Star Trek wear revealing uniforms, and it is true that the men don’t, then Star Trek is sexist”). Sometimes there will be some other order suggested by the topic (“Tom Edison was born. Then he invented the electric light bulb. Sometime later, he died”.) Sometimes you need to invent a structure (“First I will tell you about Star Trek. Then I will tell you about sexism. And finally I will tell you about sexism in Star Trek”). The general rule is * tell them briefly what you are going to say * say it * remind them briefly of what you have just said. Without a structure, and without clear signposts to what the structure is, your audience may get confused, or bored, or both. You can help by using Verbal clues, for example, “now that I’ve told you who the main characters are, I will go on to show you how they are allotted to stereotypical jobs”. Visual aids, for example using a new slide, video clip or OHP transparency to mark a new section of the talk Changing presenter in group presentations, for example, “I will now hand over to Jane, who will talk about sexism among the Klingons”. Varying activities, for example asking a question, inviting a question, asking the group to suggest one adjective each to describe Captain Kirk, and so forth. THE ROOM How is the room laid out? Where rooms have movable seating, you might like to arrive early to set it up, for example in a circle for a more informal presentation, or in rows for a formal one, always remembering to ensure that your audience can see you, you can see them, and everyone can see any audiovisual materials you are using. Always give yourself a few minutes to check that all the machinery you want to use is working, and that you (or someone in the group) knows how to use it. 6. SPEAKERS NOTESSpeakers’ notes are extremely important. They help you remember the structure of the talk, and they help when you are nervous. But reading an essay out loud is boring for both you and the audience. Here are some alternatives ‘ * Cards: put each main point on a separate card, and number the cards. * Notes on sheets of paper, with BOLD headings. Use margins to indicate where you are going to use audiovisuals, or which member of the group is doing which topic, or how long each section should last. Number the pages. * Write important quotations in full, and if you are especially anxious, write difficult sections out in full in case you cannot remember them. Number the quotations * Use OHP projections or whiteboards to remind you of the key points. Number the projections *And if you absolutely must read a prepared statement, remember that speech has a different rhythm and vocabulary to writing. A script for a talk should have plenty of emphasis marked in it, eg “the REAL test of sexism in Star Trek is to see it from the KLINGON point of view”. Speech usually works better with shorter sentences, and you will need to pay attention to the variety of sentence forms, for example by avoiding starting every sentence the same way (unless, of course, you want to emphasise a point by repetition, eg “The captain is a man. The first lieutenant is a man. The head of security is a man”). The point about numbering everything is that at the last minute, pages, cards, OHPs, videoclips and anything else you use will try to get jumbled up. When you drop your prepared script or your cards, if they are numbered, you can always find the one you need. 7. VISUAL AIDSVisual aids need to be clear, bold, using strong colours, especially in the case of OHPs and whiteboards. Break information down into short points. Look at the difference between this visual presentation: Visual aids grab attention, help the audience understand, make the presentation look professional, and help you if you are nervous (the audience will look at the visual aid, not you) and this one:
Simple is usually better than complex in visual terms. An audience cannot focus on too many things at once. Too many visual aids can confuse you as well as your audience, and some are better suited to a particular purpose than others. If you use a slide or an OHP, refer to it during your talk – make sure the audience understands why it is relevant. Give your audience time to read an OHP: pause long enough to read it through before continuing your talk. You can also use a sheet of paper to hide parts of the OHP until you are ready to introduce the next lines. Practice using your aids. Coordinating words and images can be harder than you think. And remember to look at the audience, not at the visual aids. NEVER turn your back on your audience, though you should check to see that the equipment is working and your image is visible 8. TYPES OF VISUAL AIDChalkboard/whiteboard: make sure you have either chalk or the correct sort of pen – most inks cannot be removed from whiteboards – you have to have the special kind. Flipchart: make sure your writing is big enough to be seen by everyone. Prepare the sheets before you start to talk. Overhead projector (OHP): special pens are available for writing on transparencies, and your tutor will help you photocopy transparencies when needed. Slide projector: Let your tutor know if you think you may need a slide projector. Video: always cue your tape to the place you want to begin. Again, tell your tutor if you need video, as she will have to get a key for it. Use concise clips, and time them in advance to make sure you have the space for them. Computers: despite all the rhetoric, computers can be very slow to load a piece of software or make an internet connection. Make sure you or a helper can get everything up and running in plenty of time. And make sure, once again, that the equipment is booked well in advance. Film: slightly tricky unless A) you own the film yourself, and B) you know how to run a projector. Cassettes and CDs, not strictly visual aids, but very useful, not just in radio and music presentations, but to establish atmosphere, identify a historical period or demonstrate a way of speaking. Make sure your selection is relevant and not too long. Audiences find it hard to concentrate on a talk while recordings are being played. Objects: audiences love things they can look at up close – holiday souvenirs, cigarette cards, children’s books. But don’t pass around irreplaceable or valuable things: they have a tendency to disappear. Feel free to photograph or photocopy treasured items. Handouts: audiences always appreciate something they can take away with them and think about later. This might take the form of a list of key points, a key quotation, or an image that encapsulates your argument (for example a group shot of the cast of Star Trek). Make sure your original is clear, so the copies will be too, and remember that red comes out as black, and green tends to come out white on most photocopiers. 9. STARTING A DISCUSSIONMost of your presentations will be for small groups, and when starting a discussion, you may well want to keep the group together. The point of discussion is to ensure that everyone has grasped the point of your presentation, and that the audience is able to develop ideas from what you have told them. You can of course ask people point blank something like “So what do you think?” But there are subtler and more constructive ways of helping people join in the debate. Here is a list of some key skills involved in education, and a list of ways you might ask your audience to develop them Knowledge - write, state, recognise, select, reproduce Comprehension - identify, illustrate, represent, formulate, explain, contrast Application - select, assess, find, show, use, construct Analysis - separate, compare, differentiate, contrast, break down Synthesis - summarise, argue, relate, organise, generalize, conclude Evaluation - judge, evaluate, select, recognise, criticize. You can use these verbs to invent tasks for the audience to undertake, either as a whole, or in smaller groups (“buzz groups”). For example, you might ask them to list other science fiction shows on TV, and ask small groups to compare and contrast the presentation men and women in each of them, drawing them back together to see whether all TV sci-fi shows are as sexist as Star Trek. Or you might ask them to consider a question which moves on from issues of sexism, for example, ‘How are African Americans portrayed in Star Trek?’ The key to a good discussion is to ask a question that can be answered. This means that it should - draw on your presentation - be right for the context (eg not wildly obscure or on a totally different subject) - encourage participation (eg it shouldn’t require too much specialized knowledge) And be prepared to summarise the discussion at the end, grouping comments into short statements (eg ‘Some of you think Star Trek is appallingly sexist. Some of you think it’s no more sexist than everything else on TV’). You can also conclude the session with your own opinion (eg ‘Because Star Trek is about the future, it has more of a duty to show sexual equality than any other programme’). 10. DELIVERYThere is no single right way to give a presentation. Much depends on your personal style. It is a good idea to think about your own qualities. Are you the flamboyant type, happy to attract people’s attention and hold it? Do you tend to ramble, and find it difficult to keep to time? Are you the quiet type – if so, visual aids will be especially useful in making an impact. Whatever your strengths and weaknesses, higher education is a good place to develop strengths and overcome weaknesses. Practice makes perfect! Organisation: Give yourself the time to get your ideas, your notes and your materials. Arrive early, organise the seating to your purposes, and check that all the machinery you want to use is present and working. Have your notes handy, ordered and numbered. Can your audience see and hear you? Ask them! Timekeeping: keep a watch where you can see it, and mark in your script or notes where you have to be at each point in the presentation. Beginning: make the format clear at the outset, so the audience know what to expect (eg “we will talk for 10 minutes, and then take questions”; “Please stop us and ask if there is anything you don’t understand”; “We will be asking you your opinion at the end of the session” etcetera) Introductions: Introduce yourself and/or members of the group. Everyone likes to know who they are listening to. Opening gambits: set the tone and grab attention with the opening sentence. You can do this by * asking a question * making a provocative statement * using a visual aid * telling a joke * recounting an anecdote * using a quotation * giving them a surprise (eg an unusual fact or statistic). And once again: tell them what you are going to tell them. The middle: a well structured presentation should contain 1. a clarification of key concepts and/or issues 2. an analysis of issues and ideas involved 3. a clearly signaled section where you evaluate and summarise your findings. These sections form the basis of a good presentation, both from the point of view of your audience, and from the point of view of a tutor. Check your notes to make sure that they fall into these main sections. You can, if it will help, tell the audience that you are going to describe the issue analyse some evidence evaluate what you have found out Relating to your audience is essential to a good presentation. If people start gazing out of the window, or start looking at their watches, vary your presentation accordingly, for example by asking a question, using a new visual aid, or moving swiftly on to the next section. Don’t worry about answering questions. If you are well prepared, there will be no problem. If you don’t know the answer, or are suddenly overcome with embarrassment, admit ignorance or pass the question on to someone in the audience, tutor or student, who may be able to help. The end: among possible techniques for shaping a conclusion, you might * emphasise your own point of view * return to your opening anecdote, surprise, joke, quotation * show a concluding visual aid that makes your point * ask a question. But in each and every case, remember to tell them again what you have just said. 11. CONFIDENCEThe best way to combat nerves is to be well prepared. Other things that help are * rehearsing with a friend * reminding yourself that everyone gets nervous. Your audience is on your side, and will always make allowances * watch closely other students or staff who appear confident. Try imitating the way they speak, move and gesture. This is effectively putting on an act, but a presentation is a bit like theatre, so even if you don’t feel confident, you may be able to act as if you were. * what exactly are you nervous about? - Is it drying up? Have a full text of the presentation ready as a fallback (reading is no substitute for real presentation skills, but it is the safety net you may need to boost your confidence: just knowing it is there can be a great boost). - Is it not being able to answer questions? You might practise taking questions from a friend, or bring a list of facts and figures with you to refer to, or even have a key book near to hand so that you at least feel like you could look up the answer (or invite the questioner to do so). - Is it your appearance? Use visual aids to encourage the audience to watch the screen or look at a handout, not you. * remember that everyone in the audience wants to enjoy and learn from your presentation: they are willing you to succeed * Relax. Some techniques which work well are - deep breathing exercises - tensing and relaxing your muscles - concentrating on each part of your body in turn and willing it to untense itself - visualising a pleasant scene - reliving a pleasant memory These techniques can be used both before you start, and even in the middle of a presentation. If you suddenly lose the thread, pause, concentrate on telling your muscles to untense, and start again. * come in plenty of time for the presentation, and practice moving about the room, familiarizing yourself with the environment, saying hello to people in the audience as they arrive. * some adrenalin, a little tension, helps get the presentation off to a good start. 12. AND FINALLYAfter your presentation, make a list of positive points about how it went, and another list of negative ones. This will help you in your next presentation, when you can look at how to encourage your positive strengths, and overcome your negative weaknesses. You might even ask people in the audience what they liked and disliked about your presentation to help you evaluate your performance. Special thanks to Timothy Ashplant, Peter Childs and Nicole Matthews for comments and additions. 13. PRESENTATION CHECKLIST
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